Competition Policy for Conglomerates, Platforms, and Eco-systems

We discuss the economics of eco-systems, distinct from other industrial structures but currently without an agreed definition. Our aim is to clarify the discussion around eco-systems by organising the issues and pointing out where an eco-system approach could be useful. We begin by drawing a distinction between eco-systems and other structures that share some of their features such as platforms and conglomerates concentrating on the level of control, the importance of externalities, the importance of access fees or taxes, and the presence of multiple “entry points”. Building on this discussion, we identify theories of harm that are likely to apply to eco-systems. These include blocking entry paths and “defensive foreclosure”. We then exposit the eco-system dimensions in a series of recent cases around Microsoft, Google-Alphabet, Facebook-Meta, Amazon and Apple. We see that defensive foreclosure has been a common denominator in eco-system theories of harm and that an eco-system approach can be fruitful to understand the harms - and benefits – in such cases.