Teacher creativity in navigating multilingual classrooms: negotiating policy and practice in Botswana, Tanzania, and Zambia

Substantial evidence shows the benefits of utilising language practices familiar to children in teaching and learning (Alidou et al, 2006; Ball, 2011; UNESCO, 2016, 2018). However, language-in-education policies in many African countries remain heavily influenced by monolingual mindsets and monoglossic conceptualisations of language (Erling, Adinolfi & Hultgren 2017, Erling et al 2021), as a consequence of coloniality (McKinney 2020), thus not accurately reflecting individual and community multilingualism (Makoni & Mashiri 2006, Reilly 2021). Three African contexts are discussed: Botswana, Tanzania, and Zambia, which all privilege English as the dominant language of education. Linguistic ethnographic data from interviews, classroom observations and focus groups reflect teachers’ attitudes and experiences of teaching in contexts where monolingual policy does not embrace multilingualism. We find a disconnect between official language policy and the classroom practices of teachers who demonstrate skilful creativity in responding to multifaceted pressures and expectations from parents, carers and community members.