Understanding the role of competition beliefs and learning orientations in Duolingo learners’ engagement: The mediating effects of autonomy and motivation

This study examines how learners’ beliefs about competition (positive vs. negative) and learning orientations (cooperative vs. competitive) shape engagement in language learning on Duolingo, with autonomy and motivation serving as mediators. Although competition is often viewed as either motivating or debilitating, little is known about how differing competition beliefs and orientations jointly influence engagement in digital learning contexts. Accordingly, a sample of 191 multilingual Duolingo users, recruited via convenience sampling, completed self-report scales assessing competition beliefs, learning orientations, autonomy, motivation, and engagement. Structural equation modeling indicated that positive beliefs about competition significantly and positively predicted both autonomy and motivation, whereas negative competition beliefs negatively predicted motivation. Moreover, competitive orientation significantly predicted autonomy, motivation, and engagement, whereas cooperative orientation showed only a direct positive path to engagement. Mediation analysis also revealed that both positive and negative beliefs about competition, along with competitive orientation, were indirectly associated with engagement, whereas cooperative orientation had no indirect effects. These findings suggest that cooperative and competitive dynamics promote engagement through different mechanisms, highlighting the value of supporting both orientations in digital learning environments. This study contributes to understanding how individual differences in learners’ beliefs and orientations interact with motivational processes to shape engagement, offering practical implications for designing adaptive, inclusive, and motivating language learning platforms that cater to diverse learner profiles.