Confusion and confusion regulation: An empirical investigation of the emotion regulation in achievement situations model

We examined the antecedents and consequences of confusion and confusion regulation during complex statistics problem-solving. One hundred sixty-eight university students from Canada, the US, and the UK reported their trait-like habitual confusion regarding statistics, and perceptions of control for solving complex statistics problems. After learning about the binomial theorem, students were asked to solve three complex statistics problems. A think-emote-aloud protocol was used to capture confusion and confusion regulation during problem-solving. Following problem completion, students reported the intensity of the confusion they felt during problem-solving, their perceptions of control during problem-solving, along with the frequency with which they used confusion regulation strategies, including competence development, cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, and control-focused strategies. Path analyses revealed that initial confusion about statistics negatively predicted students’ initial perceived control for the task, and that initial perceived control negatively predicted confusion experienced during problem-solving. Initial perceived control also served as a positive antecedent to competence development. Confusion did not predict any confusion regulation strategies but moderated cognitive reappraisal and suppression whereby only higher levels of confusion predicted higher levels of those two strategies. Confusion during problem-solving also negatively predicted perceived control during problem-solving, which subsequently predicted problem-solving achievement. Finally, competence development and the use of control-focused strategies positively predicted perceived control during problem-solving. Results indicate that perceived control serves as an important antecedent to confusion regulation, that confusion moderates these relations, and support the reciprocity of Emotions in Achievement Situations (ERAS) model.